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Shulamith Firestone (1970)
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This radical feminist sociologist argued that traditional family structures and gender roles oppress both women and children. For example, she saw protection from paid work as forcibly segregating children, making them powerless and dependent. She challenged the notion that progress in family life has led to greater equality and liberation for children. Instead, she argued that children are socialised into oppressive gender roles and subjected to control and domination within the family. |
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Allison James (late 1990s-)
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This sociologist has a key contribution to the idea of "children as social actors." She emphasises that children are active participants in their own lives and social interactions, challenging the traditional view of children as passive and dependent. She highlights the importance of recognising children's perspectives, experiences, and rights in shaping our understanding of childhood.
Additionally, she has explored the social construction of childhood across different cultures, emphasising the variability and diversity of childhood experiences, highlighting how childhood is shaped by social, cultural, and historical factors. Her work challenges the notion of a universal childhood and highlights the need to consider the socio-cultural contexts in understanding childhood. |
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Hugh Cunningham (2006)
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This sociologist notes that child-centred society has three main features: 1. Childhood (which legally extends to the age of 18-years in most societies) is regarded as the opposite of adulthood – children are viewed as innocent, vulnerable and dependent beings in need of adult protection from a range of potential ‘threats’ such as bad parenting, neglect, exploitation etc.
2. The social worlds of adults and children are physically and symbolically separated. For example, children occupy social spaces such as the home and schools in which they are expected to engage in play and learning respectively. They are excluded from adult spaces such as the workplace, bars etc. 3. Childhood is associated with certain rights, e.g. the right to ‘happiness’, to be ‘safe’, to be healthy, to play and to enjoy childhood. |
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Conflict Viewpoint
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This is a viewpoint which argues that society is always based on conflict and inequality and that some children will always be worse off than others, and that children generally lack rights compared to adults.
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'March of Progress' Viewpoint
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This is a viewpoint which argues that things have gradually improved for children and that their lives are much better now than they were before: -Over the past few centuries, the position of children in western societies has been steadily improving - with significant improvement from the end of the 19th century onwards. -Today's children are more valued, better cared for, protected and educated, enjoy better health and have more rights than children from previous generations. |
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Margo et al. (2006)
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These sociologists suggest children are taking greater control over family spending decisions, as there are now markets for children's products focusing on all aspects of children's lives.
Related to this, Margo states that children's access to advertising is greater than ever, transforming them into consumers and giving them access to the adult world. Margo also specifically highlights the content in youth magazines encouraging relationships and beauty/health tips - this leads to children negotiating 'adult' behaviours at a younger age. |
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Stephen Wagg (1992)
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This sociologist stated, "Childhood is socially constructed. It is, in other words, what members of particular societies, at particular times and in particular places, say it is. There is no universal childhood, experienced by all. So, childhood isn't 'natural' and should be distinguished from mere biological immaturity.".
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Lloyd de Mause (1974)
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This sociologist takes the 'March of Progress' viewpoint, stating, "The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently began to awaken.".
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Deborah Chambers (2012)
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This sociologist argues that we live in a child-centred society, and that children are now "special people with unique needs".
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Neil Postman (1994)
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This sociologist was concerned with the disappearance of childhood: -He argues that the distinction between adults and children is disappearing, and that there is a merging of the taste and style of children and adults, with behaviour, language and attitudes becoming indistinguishable. -Children in contemporary society are rapidly becoming exposed to a range of experiences that they share with adults, such as the globalised media, especially the internet and TV. -This may be eroding the cultural divisions between childhood and adult status. In the contemporary world, children are increasingly exposed to the same issues, themes and experiences as adults, and are no longer sheltered from adult experiences and knowledge, including sex, pornography, crime, alcohol and drug abuse, and violence.
Evaluations: There is evidence for this found in a 2007 report from the Cambridge University-based 'Primary Review' inquiry, as well as a 2011 BBC News School Report Survey of 11 to 16 year olds: -In the 'Primary Review' inquiry, children of primary school age are expressing concern about adult-related themes, like climate change, global warming and pollution, the gulf between rich and poor, terrorism, crime and street violence. -The BBC News School Report Survey found this age group was the most concerned about terrorism and climate change as threats to the world. |
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Diana Gittins (1998)
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This sociologist discusses the concept of "age patriarchy." She argues that age-based inequalities and power dynamics exist within families, where older individuals hold authority and dominance over younger generations. Adult control over children takes a number of forms: -Control over resources: Labour laws and compulsory schooling make children financially dependent on adults. -Control over children’s space: There has been an increase in surveillance of children in public spaces. Take school as an example – Children are monitored more than ever through electronic registration systems, constant testing and nearly every school in the UK has surveillance cameras, with up to 10% of them having them in the toilets. Children are even more controlled in terms of their journey to and from school – In 1971 80% of 7-8 year olds went to school on their own, this had reduced to 10% by 1990.
-Control over children’s time: Parents restricts children through daily and weekly routines. Children today are given less time to themselves, with parents scheduling in more activities for them to do in evenings and weekends.
-Control over children’s bodies: Parents control how children dress and how they interact physically with other children and over their own bodies (don’t pick your nose, don’t slouch etc.).
-Evidence that children childhood as oppressive comes from the strategies they use to resist the status of child and the strategies that go with it. Two of these strategies are ‘acting up’ and ‘acting down’. Acting up is where a child acts older than they are in order to rebel. Acting down is where a child acts younger than they are as an act of rebellion.
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Philippe Aries (1962)
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This sociologist takes the 'March of Progress' viewpoint, stating that we have a modern 'cult of childhood' - to which we have moved from a world that did not see childhood as in any way special, to a world that is obsessed with it: -Families have become more child-centred, with family activities and outings often focused on the interests of children. -The amount of time parents spend with their children has more than doubled since the 1960s, and parents are more likely to take an interest in their children's activities, discussing decisions with them, and treating them more as equals.
Evaluations: -Adrian Wilson (1980) argues that he makes the mistake of being ethnocentric. This means that he views the past from the perspective and judgement of the present. Consequently he argues that medieval society had a limited awareness of childhood because they lacked modern society’s ‘awareness’ of what children are like and how they should be treated. Therefore he is seen to be guilty of applying modern standards to past societies. However, it may be quite simply that these societies had different standards of childhood – they may have loved their children in ways in which people in modern societies might not understand. |
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John Holt (1964)
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This American author and educator criticises the 'March of Progress' viewpoint of childhood, specifically criticising the notion that progress in education and child-rearing has led to optimal outcomes for children. He argues that the emphasis on academic achievement, standardised testing, and adult-directed learning stifles children's natural curiosity and intrinsic motivation. He believes that children have a natural inclination to learn and explore the world, and that traditional educational systems often hinder this innate desire.
He also critiques the hierarchical power dynamics within families and educational institutions, which he sees as limiting children's autonomy and creativity. He advocates for greater respect for children's individuality and choices, and for providing them with opportunities for self-directed learning. |
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Sue Palmer (2007)
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In her book, 'Toxic Childhood: How the Modern World Is Damaging Our Children and What We Can Do About It', she stated new technologies are benefitting adults and harming children. Parents are using them as an alternative to traditional parenting: "every year children become more distractible, impulsive and self-obsessed - less able to learn, to enjoy life, to thrive socially".
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