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Gaby Weiner (1993, 1995)
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In 1993, this sociologist argues that women's contribution to history is largely ignored, as she describes the secondary school history curriculum as a 'woman-free zone'.
In 1995, this sociologist argues that since the 1980s, teachers have challenged gender stereotypes, as well as sexist images being removed from learning materials. She concludes that this may have helped to raise girls' achievement by presenting them with more positive images of what women can do. |
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French & French (1993)
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These sociologists analysed classroom interaction and found that boys received more attention because they attracted more reprimands.
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Pat O'Connor (2006)
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This sociologist studied a group of 14-17 year olds and found that marriage and children were not a major part of their life plans.
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Roger Slee (1998)
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This sociologist argues that boys are less attractive in schools because: -They are more likely to suffer from behavioural difficulties. -They are 4 times more likely to be excluded. |
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Becky Francis (1999, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2010)
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In 1999, this feminist sociologist suggested laddish behaviour is a backlash against feminism and political correctness.
In 2000, she suggested girls conform to 'boffin' identities, whereby their intelligence is more important than their appearance.
In 2001: -She interviewed girls and found them to have high aspirations. Very few saw their future in 'traditional female roles' and they desired educational qualifications. -She found that while boys got more attention than girls, they were disciplined more harshly and felt picked on by teachers, who tended to have lower expectations of them.
-Boys were more concerned than girls about being labelled by peers as 'swots', as this label is more of a threat to their masculinity than it is to girls' femininity. -"The main demand on boys within their peer group, but also sometimes from teachers, is to appear to do little or no work, to be heavily competitive at sports and hetero-sex, to be rough, tough and dangerous to know.". -There is an increasingly widespread laddish culture, where girls move into traditional masculine areas such as careers, whilst boys respond by "becoming increasingly laddish in their effort to construct themselves as non-feminine".
In 2004, she found that in school, boys' behaviour consisted of taking up more space than girls, frequently kicking balls around, and physically assaulting each other (seriously or in play-fighting). She references Christine Skelton, who pointed out that maintaining an 'aggressive and competitive masculine identity' involves constant confrontation and challenges between boys. Playground activity is also highly gender segregated. Gendered classroom behaviour supports a 'hidden curriculum' that can make girls believe that they are of less value than boys, undermining girls' confidence and self-esteem. This also makes boys learn about and experience a hierarchy of competitive 'laddish' masculinities, in which those who fail to conform to the stereotypes may be routinely demonised, marginalised and punished by their peer groups.
In 2005, she researched gendered expectations and behaviours, and found: -Boys monopolise discussions (for example, shouting out answers), equipment, space and time in the classroom. -Girls are perceived to be invisible and docile in classrooms (for example, they appear to talk quietly and are ignored). -There are lower expectations of boys, which shapes their self-efficacy for tasks. -There are higher expectations on girls, which increases pressure on them to achieve.
In 2006, she found that 2/3 of 7-8 year olds believed the gender of a teacher doesn't matter.
In 2010, she found middle-class female 'boffins' may respond to exclusion/labelling from others by defining other, working-class girls as 'chavs'.
In other research, she found: -Girls spend more time doing their homework properly and ensuring presentation compared to boys. -Girls concentrate for longer (typically 3-4 times longer) than boys and care about the opinion of teachers. -Girls are better organised and are more likely to meet homework deadlines compared to boys. |
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Mitsos & Browne (1998)
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These sociologists conclude, regarding the gender gap in achievement that: -Girls are more successful in coursework because they are more conscientious and better organised than boys. |
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Stephen Gorard (2005)
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This sociologist suggests the gender gap in achievement was fairly consistent from 1975 to 1989, to which it then increased sharply: -This was the year in which GCSE was introduced, bringing with it coursework as a major part of nearly all subjects (linked to better literacy skills). -This gender gap in achievement is a, "product of the changed system of assessment rather than any more general failing of boys". |
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Joan Swann (1998)
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This sociologist found gender differences in communication styles: -Boys dominate in whole-class discussion. When working in groups, their speech is often characterised by hostile interruptions. This may explain why teachers respond more negatively to boys, whom they see as potentially disruptive. -Girls prefer pair-work and group-work and are better at listening and cooperating. When working in groups, girls' speech involves turn taking. This may explain why teachers respond more positively to girls, whom they see as cooperative. -Overall, these factors may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy in which successful interactions with teachers promote girls' self-esteem and raise their achievement levels. |
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Answer
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David Jackson (1998, 2006)
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In 1998, this sociologist argues that the introduction of league tables have improved opportunities for girls. This is because: -High-achieving girls are attractive to schools. -Low-achieving boys aren't attractive to schools. These factors tend to create a self-fulfilling prophecy as girls are more likely to be recruited by good schools, so therefore are more likely to do well.
In 2006, he found that laddish behaviours present in lower social classes can't be corrected by additional work at home. |
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Angela McRobbie (1975, 1994)
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In 1975, with Jenny Garber, this sociologist defined 'Bedroom Culture' which described: -Teenage girls using home as a site for youth cultural activities, because pursuits such as listening to music and reading magazines fitted into their everyday domestic roles (and environment), responsibilities and into their leisure time, as it is low maintenance. -She argues that girls did not have the time and space of their male counterparts to have the level of commitment to be a member of a street-based subculture. -The media adapted to this, through the selling of commercial products and goods marketed specifically to female teenagers (teenage girls magazines, pop music).
In 1994, this sociologist conducted a study involving a comparison of girls' magazines from the 1970s compared to the 1990s. In the 1970s magazines, the expectations for girls were: -Having children. -Staying in the home. -Not being 'left on the shelf'. In the 1990s magazines, the expectations for girls were: -Focusing on being a strong, assertive, independent person. -Pursuing career goals before having a family. |
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Sue Sharpe (1994)
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This sociologist studied London secondary school girls' ambitions in 1974 and then in 1994. In 1974: -Girls had low aspirations. -Girls saw educational success as unfeminine. -Girls stated their priorities were 'love, marriage, children, jobs and careers' in that order. In 1994: -Girls priorities were having a family and being financially independent. |
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Beck & Beck-Gernsheim (2001)
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These postmodernist sociologists, linking to girls changing ambitions of no longer considering marriage and having children to be a major part of their life plans, suggested: -This is linked to the trend towards individualisation in modern society - where independence is valued much more strongly than in the past. -Careers are now a part of a woman's life project, as they promise recognition and economic self-sufficiency. |
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Janette Elwood (1998, 2005)
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In 1998, this sociologist said that as a result of differences in socialisation, boys and girls develop different tastes in reading. This leads to different subject choices: -Boys read hobby books and information texts. -Girls more likely to read stories about people. This helps to explain why boys prefer science subjects and why girls prefer subjects such as English.
In 2005, this sociologist argued that although coursework has some influence on the gender gap in achievement, it is unlikely to be the only cause because exams have much more influence than coursework on final grades. |
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Louise Archer (2007, 2010)
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In 2007, this feminist sociologist found, in relation to boys, the formation of 'Nike' identities as a form of symbolic capital awarded status for wearing branded sportswear, but this clashes with the school habitus (symbolic violence).
In 2010, this feminist sociologist believes there is a conflict between: -Working-class girls' feminine identities and the values/ethos of their school (uses a concept of 'symbolic capital' to understand this). She also found that many of the working-class girls she researched invested time and money in constructing 'desirable' and 'glamorous' hyper-heterosexual, feminine identities: -For example, 1 girl earned £40 per week through babysitting. She spent this money on her appearance, buying items such as 'sexy' clothes, makeup and hairstyles. -This performance brought status from their female peer group and avoided them being called a 'tramp' for wearing the wrong brand. -In contrast, this also brought them into conflict with the school, as they were punished for wearing the wrong appearance, for example, wearing too much makeup/jewellery. -This led to the school 'othering girls' - defining them as 'not one of us' and being incapable of educational success and therefore, being less worthy of respect (symbolic violence). -She concludes that, from the school's point of view, the 'ideal female pupil' identity is de-sexualised and middle-class one that excludes many working-class girls.
Separately, this feminist sociologist defined 3 categories of teacher's perceptions of pupils: -Ideal pupil: usually female, middle class - seen as high achievers. -Pathologised pupil: asexual, usually Chinese/Indian, seen as unthreatening. -Demonised pupil: overtly heterosexual, White or Black working-class males. |
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Carol Fuller (2011)
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In this sociologist's study, some girls had educational success as being a central aspect of their identity: -They saw themselves as creators of their own future. -They had an individualised notion of self. -They believed in meritocracy. -They aimed for a professional career that would enable them to support themselves. These aspirations clearly require educational qualifications. |
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