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Branko Milanovic (2016)
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This economist provides statistical evidence to support the view that the greatest beneficiaries of globalisation have been an emerging middle-class based in China.
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'Glocal' Crime Networks
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The cost of travelling to Europe typically ranges between $10,000 and $40,000 according to 'Precarious Journeys', a 2019 report by EPCAT UK, Anti-Slavery International and Pacific Links Foundation, on people-trafficking from Vietnam: -The cost varies depending on the distance, destination, level of difficulty, method of transport, and whether the migrant has personal links to the smugglers or decides to work for them. -Smuggling migrants involves recruiters, transporters, hoteliers, facilitators, enforcers, organisers and financiers. -Global criminal networks work within local contexts as interdependent local units. -People-trafficking and smuggling require local networks to organise supply at a local level and existing local criminals need to connect to the global networks to continue their activities. -Sociologists use the term, 'glocal' to describe the interconnectivity between the local and the global in relation to crime, with transnational crime rooted in 'glocalities' - local contexts with global links. |
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Human Trafficking from Vietnam to the UK
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In October 2019, 39 Vietnamese migrants were found dead in a refrigerated lorry trailer in Essex: -This was part of a 'global ring' involving the movement of a large number of illegal immigrants into the UK. -Human trafficking and people-smuggling gangs are continuing to exploit a 5000-mile route from China to the UK. -The line between smuggling and trafficking can become blurred on the journey. -Some may not even recognise that they are victims of trafficking since they may have chosen to travel to the UK in search of work and they will often have paid a people-smuggler to organise the journey and to find them a job in the UK. -Most know that their families at home are heavily in debt to their traffickers for the cost of their journey, and they can remain trapped in this debt bondage for years, trying to repay the debts and too frightened to seek help. -Aware that they are in the UK illegally, they are wary of the police and are extremely unlikely to report their own exploitation. -Home Office figures, under the Freedom of Information Act, disclosed the cases of 121 Vietnamese nationals who were identified as possible victims of human trafficking in 2018. -While it is hard to get accurate statistics about the real numbers of trafficked Vietnamese people, because most remain hidden and undocumented, new figures from the Salvation Army, which works with victims of trafficking, show that more Vietnamese men were referred to the charity between July 2018 and July 2019 than any other nationality. -The charity worked with 209 people from Vietnam over that period, a 248% increase on the number referred 5 years earlier. EPCAT UK, a charity which works with child trafficking victims, has seen a steep rise in the number of Vietnamese referrals, from 135 in 2012, to 704 in 2018. -Anti-slavery organisations have been trying to raise the alarm for years about the growing problem of Vietnamese children and young adults being trafficked into the UK. -Boys are usually sent to work on cannabis farms, while girls and young women are dispatched to work in nail bars. -Both sexes are also frequently forced into prostitution. |
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Meera Nanda (2011)
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This historian, in her book, 'The God Market', examined how globalisation and Hinduism have created a huge and prosperous, scientifically educated middle-class in IT, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology sectors closely tied with the global economy.
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John Urry (1999)
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This sociologist said we live in a 'borderless world'.
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Cooperation for the Control of Global Crime
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More interconnectedness of countries because of globalisation has directly led to more interconnectedness in global law enforcement and in agencies tackling crime on a global scale: -At a national level, the UK has quite strict border control regulations, such as fining airlines if they bring in undocumented passengers. -In addition, policies regarding immigration detention have changed and now in the UK, there is no legal limit on how long a person may be held in immigration detention. -A number of other European countries have introduced thermal imaging devices, CCTV and fencing to prevent illegal crossings. -The use of surveillance technology has also been enhanced and amplified by new information and communication technologies. -At the same time, international cooperation and control have increased in the various 'wars' on terror, drugs and crime. -More agencies are working across national borders to tackle crimes that have global dimensions, making the lives of offenders and organised crime more difficult - i.e. the NCA. |
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Kathryn Farr (2005)
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This sociologist identifies 2 types of global criminal networks: 1. Established mafias - for example, Chinese Triads and Italian mafia, often organised around family and ethnic characteristics. 2. More newly organised crime groups - which include Russian and East European networks that emerged after the collapse of communist regimes and, in Latin America, Colombian drug cartels. |
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Impact of Globalisation
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Globalisation has affected crime in 3 major ways: 1. The changing extent of crime. 2. The changing nature of crime. 3. The intensification of cross-national cooperation for the control of crime. |
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Manuel Castells (1989)
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According to this sociologist, globalisation has not only led to an increase in crime at both ends of the social spectrum but new types of crimes have emerged: -This has created transnational networks of organised crime which operate across different countries. -This meant a growing global criminal economy already worth over £1 trillion per annum, consisting of new types of crimes, including: -Smuggling of illegal immigrants. -Cyber-crime -Trafficking of weapons, women, children, body parts cultural artefacts and endangered species. |
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Misha Glenny (2018)
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This journalist, in a 2018 BBC TV drama based on his research, refers to the 'McMafia' to describe how transnational organised crime networks increasingly mirror the activities of legal transnational corporations, for example McDonalds: -Similar to legal transnational corporations, the transnational networks of organised crime operate as a self-interested economic organisation, but instead of selling products like fast food, they provide drugs, sex, organs and opportunities for illegal immigration. |
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Jagdish Bhagwati (2007)
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This economist stated, 'Free trade is associated with higher growth ... higher growth is associated with reduced poverty'.
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Held et al. (2010)
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These sociologists defined globalisation as 'the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of life, from the cultural to the criminal, the financial to the spiritual'.
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Globalisation
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This involves the process of de-territorialisation and greater interconnectedness of countries: -We now live in a shrinking world, one in which national borders have become less relevant, as the local and global become more interconnected. -In effect, it could be argued that the world has become a single territory for both legal and illegal business activities. -It can be safe to say that the process of this has an impact on all aspects of social life - the rapid rate of social change in the globalised world has created new risks, uncertainties and choices at both micro and macro level. -At macro level, this has led to the development of a 'global risk consciousness'. -Rather than risks being confined to particular countries and linked to certain places, risks are becoming global. -For example, the management and control of global drug crime - understanding drug crime cannot be limited to work in drug-producing countries, such as Afghanistan, Colombia or Peru - it can only be understood in the global context. -Global risk consciousness is a heightened rise of anxieties within a national population resulting in the need to protect borders. -The global risk consciousness is fuelled by the global media, which amplifies and distorts the dangers faced by countries, thus creating moral panics about supposed external threats.
Causes: -Rapid growth and spread of new information and communication technologies (ICT), which make communication across time and space much easier and cheaper. -Involving increasing movements of people across national boundaries facilitated by cheap air travel and major political upheavals, such as the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and changes in Eastern Europe. -However, at the heart of this is the de-regulation of financial markets - increasing free trade of goods across national borders - underpinned by policies of neo-liberalism.
Evaluations: -This was initially seen in a positive light by most economists and politicians, as the overall benefits were seen to outweigh the negative aspects - including economist Bhagwati (2007). -However, most recently these supposed benefits have been challenged, particularly since the global financial crisis of 2008. -Both the developing world and developed world are experiencing the negative costs of this, such as aggressive wage restraint, zero hours contracts, underemployment and unemployment, tax dodging for the rich and the opportunity for corporations to relocate to countries that are more profitable. |
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National Crime Agency (NCA)
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This agency in the UK now deploys International Liaison Officers (ILOs) in 'strategic locations' around the world, where their expertise is used alongside local forces to extend this agency's global reach and disrupt criminality before it impacts on the UK: -To combat international serious and organised crime, they support a network of ILOs deployed overseas, but supported by UK-based officers, a scheme that now covers more than 130 countries around the world. |
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The Changing Extent of Crime
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Globalisation has not only created opportunities for legitimate activities, it has also created an illegitimate global opportunity structure, one which offers new opportunities for crime and new methods of committing crime: -This has resulted in the emergence of new types of crime as part of a 'global criminal economy'. -The global criminal economy has both a demand and a supply side. -The demand for products and services in the affluent West is matched by the flow of supply from developing countries, for example, drugs, smuggling of illegal immigrants, etc. -Thus, globalisation has led to changes in the extent and patterns of crime. -De-regulation of financial markets means that governments have little control over their own economies, for example, job creation, taxation and state spending on public services such as welfare, which has declined in the UK. -Marketisation has encouraged competition and individualism, leading to success being increasingly measured in terms of a lifestyle of excessive consumption, promoted by the media-saturated global world. -All this, critics argue, has resulted in widening inequalities, encouraging the poor to turn to crime due to the decline in the legitimate opportunity structure of employment, and a rise in illegitimate opportunity structures, such as in the global drug trade. -Simultaneously, opportunities have been created on a grander scale for elite groups and organisations to engage in activities such as tax evasion and insider dealing. |
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