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Answer
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Hint
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James Curran (2003)
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In reference to the Cultural Effects Model, this Neo-Marxist sociologist argues that the frequent reading of particular newspapers means that audiences are led into a particular ideological way of seeing and interpreting the world.
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Bandura et al. (1963)
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These sociologists looked for a direct cause-and-effect relationship between media content and violence: -They showed 3 groups of children real, film and cartoon examples of a self-righting doll ('bobo doll') being attacked with mallets, while a 4th group saw no violent activity. -After being introduced to a room full of exciting toys, the children in each group were made to feel frustrated by being told that the toys were not for them. -They were then led to another room containing a bobo doll, where they were observed through a one-way mirror. -The 3 groups who had been shown the violent activity - whether real, film or cartoon - all behaved more aggressively than the 4th group. -On the basis of this experiment, these sociologists concluded that violent media content could lead to imitation or 'copycat' violence. |
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Reception Analysis Model
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This media audience theory, created by Morley and developed on Stuart Hall's analysis, said that audiences might decode texts in 3 ways: 1. The preferred or dominant reading: audiences interpret texts in the same way they were encoded in the first place. 2. A negotiated reading: audiences generally accept the dominant reading but amend it to fit their own beliefs or experiences. 3. An oppositional reading: audiences reject the dominant reading.
The reading will depend on the social characteristics of the audience. Examples include the reactions to Prince Philip's death in April 2021 and reactions to news stories on non-traditional family types. |
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Elizabeth Newson (1994)
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This sociologist argued that violent images in films are too easily available and that exposure to screen violence encouraged young viewers to identify with violent perpetrators rather than victims: -Moreover, she noted that children and teenagers are subjected to 1000s of images of killings and acts of violence as they grow up, through viewing television and films. -She suggested that such prolonged exposure to media violence may have a 'drip-drip' effect on young people over the course of their childhood and result in their becoming desensitised to violence - they become socialised into accepting violent behaviour as normal, especially as a problem-solving device.
Her conclusions had a great impact on society and politicians: -Her report led directly to increased censorship of the film industry - the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) was given the power to apply age certificates (for example, U, PG, 12A, 15 and 18) for films, DVDs and music videos. -The BBFC can also insist that film-makers make cuts relating to bad language, scenes of drug use and violence. -The television companies agreed on voluntary censorship by adopting the 9 o'clock watershed, which means that TV programmes that feature bad language or scenes of a sexual or violent nature should not be shown before this time. -TV channels also issue warnings before films and programmes with regard to sexual or violent content. |
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Cultural Effects Model
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This media audience theory argues the media does have an effect on audiences - however, audiences are not simply passive consumers: -The media will generally spread the dominant ideology, but audiences will interpret the messages based on their own characteristics. -However, it is the effect over time that is the problem – a ‘drip drip’ effect of slowly brainwashing the audience to believe the dominant hegemony.
Neo-Marxist View: -Those who run the media gatekeep and set the agenda - because audiences are limited in what they are exposed to, they will come to believe in and agree with the dominant viewpoint. -Audiences over time believe that this viewpoint is 'normal' or the 'consensus'. -For example, newspaper stories constantly presenting negative views on immigration.
Evaluations: -These cultural effects are very difficult to operationalise and measure. -Pluralists question the Marxist view that these cultural effects benefit the capitalist elite because pluralists believe that the professionalism and objectivity of modern journalists ensure that media output is constructed for the benefit of the audience. -Pluralists say that if the media do project a particular point of view at the expense of another, this is because the audience already believes in it and therefore demands it. -Pluralists argue that the sheer diversity of media content means that the Marxist concern that the media is creating a homogeneous worldview underpinned by capitalist ideology is simply untrue. |
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David Gauntlett (2008)
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This postmodernist sociologist is critical of studies, such as that carried out by Bandura et al., that have been conducted in the artificial context of the laboratory: -He argues that this makes their findings questionable because people, especially children, do not behave as naturally under laboratory conditions as they would do in their everyday environment. -For example, a laboratory context rarely takes into consideration the fact that children's media habits are generally controlled by parents, especially when they are very young. -Moreover, there may be a laboratory effect, as research subjects work out what is expected of them. -In other words, the data may not be valid because it merely reflects the desire of the research projects to please the experimenters - this may especially be the case with children. |
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Stuart Hall (1973)
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This Neo-Marxist sociologist developed the concept of encoding/decoding: -He said that the media is encoded with a particular meaning from the point of view of the dominant hegemony who creates the media content. -Most audiences will decode the media content in the way the producers intended. -This means that the viewpoint of the dominant hegemony becomes normalised. -However, others might decode the same media texts differently based on their personal characteristics or viewpoint. -For example, the mainstream press' coverage of the Queen's death in September 2022. |
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Answer
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Hint
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Selective Filter Model
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Klapper (1960) suggests that for a media message to have any effect, it must pass through three filters:
1. Selective exposure: the audience must choose to view, read or listen to the content of specific media – media messages can have no effect if no one sees them; What the audience chooses depends on their interests, education, work, time, etc. 2. Selective perception: the audience may not accept the message – they may choose to reject/ignore it. 3. Selective retention: the messages have to ‘stick’ in the mind of those who have accessed them; Research indicates that people generally retain things they broadly agree with.
For example, if failing all 3 filters, someone who reads the Guardian Newspaper may completely ignore a Daily Mail Newspaper sitting next to it on a shop shelf. |
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Julie Andsager (2000)
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This sociologist analysed the attempts by interest groups to frame the abortion debate of the late 1990s: -She found that the pro-life group in the US was more successful in getting their interpretation into press coverage because this fitted the consensus view held by male journalists. |
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Leon Festinger (1957)
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This sociologist, referencing the selective perception filter of the Selective Filter Model, argues that people seek out information that confirms their existing attitudes – e.g. choice of newspaper.
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Christopher Ferguson (2015)
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This sociologist found that youth violence in the United States had fallen by 83% in the previous 20 years, despite an explosion in the number of violent computer games: -He argues that violent games may have a beneficial effect on society because they give individuals prone to aggression an opportunity to play out that aggression and, most importantly, these individuals are no longer on the streets potentially committing violent crimes because they are too busy playing those games. |
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Neil Postman (1986)
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This sociologist, referencing the selective retention filter of the Selective Filter Model, argued that we have a ‘three minute culture’ – the attention span of the average member of society is three minutes or less.
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Uses and Gratifications Model
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This media theory, developed by Blumler & McQuail, and Lull, argues there is a weak media and a strong audience: -Out of all the models, this model assumes the audience is most active. -Rather than asking about media power or influence, this model asks what audiences use the media for. -Media audiences are thinking, active people who use the media in a variety of different ways. -For example, why does one go to the cinema, listen to music or read a newspaper?
Blumler and McQuail (1972) and Lull (1990) identify 5 uses of the media: 1. Diversion – to escape from routines or reality. 2. Personal relationships – to enhance our personal relationships with others but also to provide us with ‘imaginary’ personal relationships. 3. Personal identity – to enable us to identify and develop our identities – e.g. our looks, our likes, our sexuality. 4. Surveillance – to get information and news about the world and to form opinions. 5. Background wallpaper – while doing other things.
Analysis and Evaluation: -These different uses of the media mean that the effect will be different every time.
-We can't even assume that the use of the same media will be the same every time for everyone.
-Link to Selective Filter Model – everybody is different in terms of what they select to be exposed to - this is especially true in our individualised postmodern society.
-Therefore it is difficult to generalise about the effect of the media.
-Also links to the Pluralist idea that audiences control the media marketplace – if the media does not satisfy audience needs, then it will have no audience.
However:
-Marxists would argue that we are manipulated and that our 'choices' are not actually free choices.
-The media market is dominated by a concentrated group of media companies who profit from our media desires.
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Hypodermic Syringe Model
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This media audience theory argues there is a strong media and a weak audience: -The media acts like a hypodermic syringe, injecting media messages into the 'veins' of media audiences. -Audiences are unthinking, passive receivers of media messages. -Audiences are unable to resist the messages that are ‘injected’ into them. -The media fill the audience with the dominant ideology, sexism, racism, and scenes of violence and the audience immediately reacts to these messages. -Examples: Bandura et al.'s (1963) Bobo Doll experiment, February 1993 James Bulger murder, April 1999 Columbine High School shooting (media influences), the Dark Knight 'copycat' (2012).
Sociologists who follow this theory are concerned about the impacts of media violence: -Imitation: the potential for 'copycat' behaviour. -Desensitisation: repeated exposure to violence socialises audiences into a culture of violence in which violence is 'normalised'. -Psychological disturbance: particularly in young children.
It is argued that regulation can help mitigate the effects of a strong media and weak audience:
-Ofcom's watershed: before 9pm, broadcast TV programmes must be suitable for children. -The use of parental controls on streaming services like Netflix and gaming services like Xbox.
Evaluation: -Catharsis: rather than making viewers more aggressive, media violence reduces violence. -Sensitisation: exposure to violence in the media encourages people to see the consequences of violence. -Exaggeration: the media leads people to have an exaggerated view of crime and violence in society – the role of moral panics. -The new media has changed the way we consume and absorb media messages – less likely to pay attention or be affected.
Methodological problems: -It is hard to prove a direct link between exposure to violence and violent behaviour. -There are issues with the methodology used. |
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