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Laura Mulvey (1975)
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This sociologist finds that representations of women are filtered through the gaze of the male-dominated media establishment - leads to sexualisation: -She calls this the 'male gaze' whereby men look at women as sexual objects - female sexuality is a constant theme in advertising, the tabloid press and men's magazines. |
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Radical Feminism
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This sociological perspective argues the media reproduces patriarchy - and therefore keeps women as subordinate and oppressed: -Media-generated stereotypes of femininity discourage women from making the most of the opportunities available to them, and undermine any threat to male dominance in society. |
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Feminism
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According to this sociological perspective, the media tend to be patriarchal and spread a patriarchal ideology - women are symbolically annihilated involving 3 aspects: 1. Trivialisation: sexualisation of important women; women are 4 times more likely than men to be referred to by their family status, 'mother of two'. 2. Condemnation: victim blaming, body shaming. 3. Omission: key presenter roles (most journalists and presenters are men), quiz show and talk show panels, music festival lineups. Women are also featured less in news articles/stories, and if they are, not often represented as 'experts'. Also, older women are under-represented in the media, whereas older men are over-represented.
Examples of trivialisation: -Daily Mail March 2017: 'Never mind Brexit, who won legs-it!' headline - featuring a meeting between Theresa May and Nicola Sturgeon. -Daily Mail July 2014: 'ESTHER, THE QUEEN OF THE DOWNING STREET CATWALK' - objectified female ministers (such as Esther McVey, Penny Mordaunt, Liz Truss), describing in detail their appearance rather than their jobs. |
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Jim Macnamara (2006)
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This sociologist argues that men and boys are routinely represented as 'violent and aggressive thieves, thugs, murderers, wife and girlfriend beaters, sexual abusers, molesters, perverts, irresponsible deadbeat dads and philanderers, even though, in reality, only a small proportion of men act out of these roles and behaviours': -Men and boys are also shown as irresponsible risk-takers and, in particular, incapable of communicating their feelings or controlling anger. -Therefore, toxic masculinity is presented as the norm in the media. |
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Liberal Feminism
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This sociological perspective is concerned about the link between role representation and women's levels of achievement in society, especially in media professions: -However, they believe this will change as women gain more power and equal opportunities in media organisations, enabling them to break through the glass ceiling. |
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Pluralism
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This sociological perspective argues the media is driven by audience demand - any stereotypes exist because audiences want easy-to-read characters in a complex media marketplace: -If women are really unhappy they would not buy magazines, watch films, or buy products that objectify women -consumers control the market. -They also claim that the concept of symbolic annihilation underestimates women's ability to see through gender stereotyping and manipulation - they believe feminists are guilty of stereotyping women as impressionable and easily influenced. They claim that there is no real evidence that girls and women take any notice of media content or that it profoundly affects their attitudes or behaviour. |
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New Media
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This has impacted on representations of gender: -Social media has helped representation to become more positive because of more individualised and user-generated content - people are representing themselves rather than being represented. -Social change has been affected in media attitudes - and new media helps to promote attitudes and social change - negative ideas are challenged. -However, other powerful views have been given a platform - Andrew Tate and other influencers. |
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Gender Identities
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These are constructed through media representations of hegemonic or culturally different stereotypes of masculinity and femininity.
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Masculinity
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This is a set of attributes, behaviours, and roles associated with men and boys: -According to Macnamara, toxic masculinity is presented as the norm in the media. -Only 20% of representations focused on the so-called 'metrosexual' male. -In between there is the 'conventionally ragged, super-independent, extra-strong macho man'. -Therefore, there is a strong hegemonic ideology relating to masculinity.
Examples: -James Bond. -Tyson Fury. -Harry Styles - wearing a dress for the cover of Vogue, 2020. -Raheem Sterling - after Round of 16 Win against Germany in Men's Euro in 2022, the footballer was shown publicly celebrating with his young son. |
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Angela McRobbie (1994, 1999)
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This Popular Feminist analyses the modern media in terms of 'popular feminism' expressed through 'girl power', especially in young women's magazines: -In 1994, she suggests that, in postmodern society, there is much more fluidity and flexibility in the representations of men and women in the media, in keeping with the changes in wider society. -In 1999, she argues that a new form of popular feminism has emerged, shown in young (pre-teen and teenage) women's magazines, like Mizz, More and Sugar (now defunct). -These promote female assertiveness, being in control and enjoying sex as entitlements, and encourage their readers to be more self-aware, self-confident, ambitious and independent. -She argues that this new form of assertive femininity is embedded in contemporary 'girly culture', with 'girl power' now part of a popular culture in which girls are no longer presented as 'sweet' and innocent, and women are no longer 'ladylike'. |
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Sports Coverage
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This has predominately covered men's sports over the years, however women's sports have been gaining more coverage: -This is particularly the case with football in recent years, especially with the extensive coverage of the Women's Euro in 2022, in which the Lionesses won. |
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Socialist/Marxist Feminism
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This sociological perspective argues the media is part of capitalist society and seeks to exploit women to make a profit - women are objectified as 'products' to be sold through the male-dominated media: -This demand for stereotypes by advertisers and their power over media owners, managers and journalists were shown by the experiences of Cyndi Tebbel, who in 1997 was the editor of the Australian New Woman magazine. -She decided to feature a size-16 model on the magazine cover - this was well received by readers, who welcomed the representation of real women for a change, but a major advertiser - a cosmetics company - subsequently withdrew its advertising. -Tebbel, who later resigned, was forced to discontinue promoting what the advertisers saw as 'unhealthy' (for sales of their products) imagery. |
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David Gauntlett (2002)
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This postmodernist sociologist focuses on the relationship between the mass media and identity - focus on choice and the potential for media to provide alternative ideas for diverse feminine and masculine identities - you can pick 'n' mix - David Beckham was the first 'metrosexual' man: -He states, 'Views of gender and sexuality, masculinity, femininity, identity and selfhood, are all in slow but steady processes of change and transformation'. |
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Social Change
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This has impacted on representations of gender in the media: -In the 2000s, it was common for fragrance adverts, such as those by Lynx, to suggest that a man or woman would be more attractive if they used their products - one such advert showed a man spraying Lynx before being swarmed by women. However, this has since changed, Lynx adverts now show the 'Lynx Effect' - where people feel fresh and good about themselves due to using the spray. -Activism such as #MeToo has challenged sexism in the media. -2018: Mayor of London Sadiq Khan asked Transport for London to prevent the display of adverts promoting unrealistic, impossibly toned body images of women. -2019: Ban on gender stereotypes in advertising on TV. |
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Metrosexual Male
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This term refers to men who take care of their appearance in terms of consuming toiletries and fashion products and who are unafraid to express emotional vulnerability:
-The 'hipster' is thought by some to be symbolic of this type of ideal. |
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